Introduction to Existentialism

A. Existentialism Attitude

Existentialism, a philosophical movement that gained prominence in the 20th century, offers a profound and often unsettling exploration of human existence, freedom, and the individual’s search for meaning. It is less a monolithic doctrine with a fixed set of answers and more a tendency or an attitude that prioritizes the concrete reality of individual human life over abstract philosophical systems.

This philosophical school of thought represents a significant departure from traditional metaphysics, which often focused on discerning a pre-existing “essence” of being. Existentialism, by contrast, shifts the focus to the lived experience of “existence itself—the very experience of being human”.

The existentialist inquiry typically begins from the standpoint of the “engagé”—the individual who is actively involved in the complexities of life and directly confronts the “givens” of existence. This engagement is often characterized by a sense of urgency and a commitment to projects and values that individuals deem meaningful, even in a world that may not offer inherent purpose.

Consequently, existential thought frequently grapples with themes such as anxiety, anguish, the pursuit of authenticity, and the persistent struggle to find or create meaning within a universe that can appear indifferent or absurd. The very diversity of thinkers associated with existentialism—ranging from the a-religious to the deeply religious—underscores that its unity lies not in a shared creed, but in a common set of pressing questions and a distinctive approach to philosophical investigation.

The perceived “elusiveness” in defining existentialism with a single, concise statement is, therefore, not indicative of a conceptual weakness. Rather, it mirrors the movement’s core emphasis on the unique, subjective, and often irreducible nature of individual experience. The common thread is the starting point: the individual grappling with the conditions of their existence.

B. “Existence Precedes Essence”: The Foundational Premise

Perhaps the most widely recognized tenet of existentialism, famously articulated by the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, is the declaration that “existence precedes essence”. It suggests that a person’s existence comes before any predetermined purpose or essence. It means that individuals are not born with a specific purpose or nature that defines them. Instead, people first exist in the world and then define themselves through their choices, actions, and experiences. This idea emphasizes personal freedom, responsibility, and the notion that we create our meaning and identity rather than having it imposed on us by society, religion, or other external factors.

“Existence precedes essence” highlights the belief that we are free to shape who we are and what our lives mean, rather than being bound by a predefined essence.

This principle fundamentally challenges traditional philosophical and theological notions that human beings are born with a predetermined nature, purpose, or “essence”. Unlike a manufactured object, such as a paper-knife, which is conceived and designed for a specific function before it is created, humans, according to this view, first exist—they appear on the scene, encounter themselves, and surge up in the world—and only afterwards define themselves through their choices and actions.

Our essence, therefore, is not a given that we discover; it is something we actively create. We are, in the existentialist view, “contingently thrown into existence” without a pre-written script, burdened with the profound task of forging our own identities and purposes as our lives unfold. This idea places the power to define oneself squarely in the hands of the individual, a notion that is simultaneously liberating and daunting. If human essence were to precede existence, it would inherently limit or even undermine the creative freedom that existentialists believe is crucial for a meaningful human life. Sartre extends this idea to assert that human existence is fundamentally “indefinable” and that “there is no human nature,” because no set of given facts or circumstances (our “facticity”) can ever fully encapsulate or determine who we are. These facts only acquire significance through the meanings and values we freely assign to them.

The principle that existence precedes essence is far more than an abstract philosophical statement; it carries profound ethical and psychological weight. It serves as the bedrock for many other core existentialist concepts, including radical freedom, absolute responsibility, and the ongoing tension between living authentically and succumbing to “bad faith.”

If there is no pre-given essence, individuals are initially “nothing.” They become “something” only through the choices they make and the actions they undertake. This immediately implies a radical freedom: if choices define us, then we must be inherently free to make those choices. This freedom, in turn, necessitates an equally radical responsibility: if we are the authors of our essence, then we are entirely responsible for what we become.

The acute awareness of this unfettered freedom and the accompanying responsibility can lead to feelings of anguish. Conversely, any attempt to deny or evade this freedom and responsibility is characterized as a form of self-deception, or “bad faith”. Thus, “existence precedes essence” acts as the linchpin connecting many of existentialism’s central concerns, establishing the philosophical starting point from which the exploration of freedom, responsibility, and authenticity must proceed.

The Genesis of Existentialists’ Thought

A. Philosophical Lineage: Precursors and Early Influences

While existentialism as a distinct philosophical movement crystallized in the 19th and 20th centuries, its intellectual ancestry can be traced to earlier thinkers who grappled with similar questions about human existence, selfhood, and the search for meaning.

The Socratic injunction “know thyself” resonates with the existentialist emphasis on self-examination. The introspective writings of St. Augustine, who urged individuals to seek truth within themselves rather than externally, and the essays of Michel de Montaigne, who reflected on the tentative, trial-and-error nature of self-understanding, both exhibit early existential sensibilities. Blaise Pascal, with his poignant reflections on the precarious position of humanity situated “between Being and Nothingness” and the anxieties inherent in the human condition, also prefigures key existentialist themes.

In early 19th-century French philosophy, Marie Maine de Biran expressed a sense of marvel at his existence, a sentiment echoed by later existentialists. More directly, the German idealist F.W.J. von Schelling, in his later philosophical phase, defended the irreducibility of existence to reason in a polemic against G.W.F. Hegel. This critique by Schelling is noted as a direct inspiration for Søren Kierkegaard, the Danish philosopher frequently cited as the “father of existentialism“. These precursors highlight that concerns about the self, the meaning of life, and the human condition are not new to philosophy.

What distinguishes modern existentialism is the intensity and centrality these questions assume, particularly as traditional frameworks, such as a universally accepted religious worldview, which had previously provided comprehensive answers, began to erode.

Thinkers like Pascal and Augustine, for instance, explored profound existential anxieties but did so within robust religious frameworks. Later existentialists, especially those in the post-Nietzschean era, often confront these same fundamental questions in a context where such overarching frameworks are perceived to have collapsed or lost their widespread authority. This historical shift amplifies the individual’s burden of finding meaning and defining themselves, rendering these ancient concerns acutely modern and “existential” in the recognized sense of the term.

B. The Crucible of Modernity: 19th and 20th-Century Crises (Nihilism, Secularization, War)

The emergence and consolidation of existentialism as a significant intellectual force were profoundly shaped by the socio-cultural, political, and intellectual upheavals that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries. This period witnessed a confluence of crises that challenged established beliefs and values, creating a fertile ground for existentialist inquiry.

A key factor was the rise of nihilism. The decline of the pre-modern religious worldview, coupled with the ascendancy of a secular and scientific perspective, led to what many perceived as a “crisis of values”. Nihilism, in this context, refers to the growing sense that existence lacks any overarching reason, inherent order, or ultimate purpose. Friedrich Nietzsche’s provocative declaration “God is dead”  serves as a powerful articulation of this crisis, signifying the collapse of a transcendent moral framework that had long provided meaning and orientation for Western civilization.

The Industrial Revolution and the rapid pace of technological advancement also contributed to a sense of alienation. Many thinkers observed that industrialization was estranging human beings from nature, from meaningful labor, and from authentic modes of living. The rise of mechanized work and bureaucratic forms of administration fostered an increasingly impersonal and depersonalizing social order. This led to feelings of being a “mass man,” as described by José Ortega y Gasset, or part of an anonymous crowd, critiqued by Kierkegaard as “the public” and by Martin Heidegger as “the They”. Individuals felt disconnected from themselves and from genuine community.

The cataclysmic World Wars of the 20th century, the unspeakable horrors of the Nazi death camps, and the advent of nuclear weapons with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, created what has been termed an “existentialist moment”. These events delivered a profound shock to the collective psyche, forcing an entire generation to confront the realities of death, the burden of freedom, and the apparent meaninglessness of existence on an unprecedented and brutal scale. The optimistic belief in inevitable human progress and the stability of traditional moral certainties was shattered.

There was a shift in focus, reacting against the Enlightenment’s supreme emphasis on abstract reason, philosophers like Schelling and Hegel began to view philosophy as an activity deeply intertwined with human history and lived experience, rather than a detached, purely theoretical pursuit. Karl Marx further radicalized this by asserting that the point of philosophy was not merely to interpret the world but to change it. Existentialism continued and intensified this trend by centering its attention on the concrete, subjective, and often fraught experience of the individual.

Existentialism can thus be understood as a profound philosophical response to the multifaceted trauma of modernity. The erosion of traditional anchors—God, stable social orders, unquestioned values—and the direct confrontation with unprecedented human-made destruction created a palpable void. Into this void, existentialism stepped, not with easy answers, but with an attempt to navigate the human condition by turning inward to the individual’s capacity for choice, responsibility, and the creation of meaning, even in the face of an apparently indifferent or absurd universe. If external sources of meaning and value were perceived as having vanished or lost their authority, then meaning and value had to be generated from within the individual. This makes existentialism not merely a collection of abstract ideas, but a vital toolkit for navigating a world perceived to be in profound crisis.

Existentialism: Thinkers and Their Philosophies

The following are the key thinkers and their respective philosophies

A. Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

Subjective Truth, Faith, and the Stages of Life

Søren Kierkegaard, a 19th-century Danish philosopher and theologian, is widely regarded as the “father of existentialism“. His work profoundly challenged the prevailing philosophical currents of his time, particularly the systematic and objective idealism of G.W.F. Hegel. Kierkegaard’s central contribution lies in his passionate defense of

Subjective truth is the highest form of truth attainable for the existing individual. He argued that when it comes to the fundamental questions of existence—how one should live, what one should believe—detached, objective reasoning is insufficient.

For Kierkegaard, truth is not merely a matter of assenting to objective facts; rather, it involves how one relates to those facts. In his words, “subjectivity is truth”. This personal truth is often described as being “true for me,” a conviction that is felt rather than logically proven, and which frequently leads to feelings of anxiety and confusion due to its inherent objective uncertainty.

Kierkegaard famously delineated three stages of existence, or spheres of life, representing different modes of individual development and commitment.

• The first is the Aesthetic Stage, characterized by the pursuit of pleasure, novelty, and sensory experience, often living for the moment without deep commitments (exemplified in “The Seducer’s Diary” section of his work Either/Or).

• The second is the Ethical Stage, which involves making choices, taking responsibility, and committing to moral principles and societal duties. The individual in the ethical stage identifies with a larger community and strives to live a life of integrity.

• The third and highest stage, for Kierkegaard, is the Religious stage. This stage requires a “leap of faith,” a passionate, personal commitment to God that transcends reason and embraces paradox. He explored the nature of this faith in

Fear and Trembling, using the biblical story of Abraham and Isaac to illustrate the suspension of the ethical in the face of a divine command.

Themes of anxiety, despair, and the absurd are central to Kierkegaard’s thought. He famously described anxiety as “the dizziness of freedom” , suggesting that it arises from the awareness of our capacity for free will and the multitude of possibilities before us.

For Kierkegaard, Despair is a “sickness unto death,” a spiritual condition related to the self’s failure to authentically relate to itself and to God. He viewed human reality as fundamentally absurd and unexplainable through reason alone, arguing that faith is necessary to navigate this absurdity.

Kierkegaard was also a sharp critic of modernity, decrying his age as overly reflective, valuing abstract thought over decisive action, and viewing money as a deceptive “abstraction”.

He accused society of being in a state of “death-denial,” failing to confront the reality of individual mortality. To engage his readers more directly and provoke personal reflection rather than passive acceptance of doctrine, Kierkegaard often employed indirect communication, writing under various pseudonyms and utilizing irony and satire.

Kierkegaard’s insistence on subjective truth and the necessity of a leap of faith represents a radical departure from and critique of Enlightenment rationalism. He posited that the most profound dimensions of human existence, particularly those related to ethical commitment and religious faith, lie beyond the grasp of purely objective reason. These dimensions, he argued, demand a passionate, personal engagement that courageously embraces uncertainty and paradox.

His critique of Hegel’s all-encompassing rational system was pivotal; Kierkegaard contended that such systems inevitably overlooked the concrete, existing individual and their personal struggles. For life’s most crucial decisions, objective proof is an impossibility. One cannot logically deduce one’s way to faith; it requires a volitional “leap” into the objectively uncertain, the absurd.

Thus, when Kierkegaard states “subjectivity is truth,” he means that personal conviction, born from passionate engagement in the face of objective uncertainty, forms the only authentic basis for these ultimate commitments. This directly counters the Enlightenment ideal of reason as the sole and sufficient arbiter of all truth and value.

B. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900):

The Will to Power, the Übermensch, and the “Death of God”

Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher, cultural critic, and poet, stands as another foundational figure whose ideas profoundly shaped existentialism. His philosophy is characterized by a radical questioning of traditional Western morality, religion, and metaphysics.

Perhaps his most famous and often misunderstood proclamation is that “God is dead”. This statement is not a literal claim about the demise of a deity but a metaphorical diagnosis of a cultural phenomenon: the decline of religious belief in the modern era and, consequently, the collapse of a universal moral framework and source of meaning that had been anchored in divine authority. Nietzsche perceived this “death of God” as a pivotal event, simultaneously liberating—in that it freed humanity to create its own values—and terrifying, as it opened the door to a potential crisis of meaning, or nihilism.

In response to this crisis, Nietzsche posited the Will to Power (der Wille zur Macht) as a fundamental driving force inherent in all living things. This concept is not merely about a desire for dominance over others, but rather a deeper impulse towards self-mastery, growth, evolution, creative expression, and the assertion of one’s influence and interpretation upon the world. The Will to Power is the drive to overcome adversity, to transform suffering into strength, and to continuously strive for self-transcendence.

From this, Nietzsche developed the concept of the Übermensch (Overman or Superman), an ideal for humanity. The Übermensch is an individual who has overcome the constraints of conventional (“slave”) morality, which Nietzsche saw as life-denying and rooted in resentment. This figure creates their own values, affirms life in its totality (including its suffering), and lives according to their own inner will, unshackled by societal norms, religious dogma, or traditional ethical systems. The Übermensch embodies radical freedom, creativity, and a profound love of fate (amor fati). The path to becoming an Übermensch is through a continuous process of “self-overcoming”.

Nietzsche also introduced the idea of the Eternal Recurrence (ewige Wiederkunft), a challenging thought experiment: if one were to live one’s exact life, with all its joys and sorrows, an infinite number of times, would one joyfully affirm it? This concept forces a radical confrontation with the value of one’s actions and choices, serving as a test of life-affirmation.

Nietzsche was a fierce critic of traditional morality and religion, particularly Christianity, which he viewed as promoting a “slave morality” that valued meekness, humility, and pity, thereby suppressing the noble instincts of strength, creativity, and individuality. He called for a “transvaluation of all values” (Umwertung aller Werte), a radical re-evaluation and overturning of these established moral codes.

Furthermore, Nietzsche did not shy away from the reality of suffering; instead, he saw it as an inevitable and even necessary component of human existence, a catalyst for growth, the development of strength, and the achievement of self-overcoming. His famous aphorism, “what does not kill me makes me stronger,” encapsulates this perspective.

Nietzsche’s philosophy, especially his diagnosis of the “death of God” and his vision of the Übermensch, represents a radical endeavor to establish meaning and value immanently, from within human existence itself, after the perceived collapse of transcendent justifications. This undertaking places an immense creative and, simultaneously, destructive burden upon humanity: the task of dismantling old, life-denying values and forging new, life-affirming ones.

The “death of God” creates a vacuum, a potential descent into nihilism. Nietzsche’s response is not despair, but an embrace of the Will to Power—the inherent human drive to create, to overcome, and to affirm life in all its aspects.

The Übermensch is the embodiment of this potential, a figure who creates values “beyond good and evil” as traditionally conceived. This is not merely a project of individual self-improvement but a call for a fundamental re-evaluation of what it means to be human and what constitutes a valuable life, all in a world stripped of divine guidance.

The thought experiment of the Eternal Recurrence serves as the ultimate crucible for this life-affirmation. Nietzsche’s entire philosophical project can be seen as a response to the perceived bankruptcy of existing Western values and an audacious attempt to chart a new course for humanity, grounded entirely in its own creative and life-affirming capacities.

C. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)

Being, Dasein, and the Question of Authenticity

Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher, exerted an unparalleled influence on 20th-century thought, particularly within continental philosophy, although his personal involvement with National Socialism during the 1930s remains a deeply controversial aspect of his biography. His primary philosophical project was the investigation of the “question of Being” (die Seinsfrage).

Central to Heidegger’s philosophy is the concept of Dasein, a German term that can be translated as “being-there” or “there-being”. Dasein is Heidegger’s term for human existence, the entity for whom its own Being is an issue. Unlike objects or other living creatures, humans are defined by the fact that they exist, are “in the world,” and inhabit it in a way that involves understanding and concern. Dasein is not a detached, isolated subject observing an external world; rather, Dasein is fundamentally

Being-in-the-world (In-der-Welt-sein). This concept emphasizes the inherent situatedness and engagement of human existence within a meaningful context of tools, tasks, and other Daseins.

A crucial distinction in Heidegger’s analysis of Dasein is between authenticity (Eigentlichkeit) and inauthenticity (Uneigentlichkeit). Dasein has the potential to live authentically by confronting its own finitude, particularly its “being-towards-death” (Sein-zum-Tode), and by taking resolute responsibility for its individual existence and possibilities. Conversely, Dasein can fall into inauthenticity by conforming to the anonymous norms and conventions of “the They” (das Man). In this mode, one does what “one” does, says what “one” says, and thinks what “one” thinks, thereby losing oneself in the distractions, chatter, and superficiality of everyday public life and evading genuine selfhood.

Anxiety (Angst), for Heidegger, is not merely a psychological state but a fundamental mood (Stimmung) that plays a crucial role in the possibility of authentic existence. Anxiety discloses Dasein’s “Being-in-the-world” as such, its “thrownness” (Geworfenheit)—the fact that it finds itself already in a world not of its own choosing—and its freedom towards its ownmost potentiality for Being, including its finitude in death. Anxiety can thus call Dasein back from its lostness in “the They” towards a more authentic mode of existence. Heidegger’s work, particularly his magnum opus Being and Time (Sein und Zeit), profoundly influenced subsequent existentialist thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, as well as many other figures in modern European philosophy.

Heidegger’s phenomenological analysis of Dasein represents a significant attempt to reorient philosophical inquiry away from abstract metaphysics and epistemology, which often treated the human as a disembodied “thinking substance” (Descartes) or a “rational animal.” Instead, Heidegger focused on the concrete structures and fundamental modes of everyday human existence. Dasein is characterized by its engagement, concern, and temporality.

Authenticity, in this framework, arises not from abstract rational principles but from a courageous confrontation with the concrete realities of one’s own existence, especially its finitude and mortality. Inauthenticity, then, is a flight from this confrontation, a submersion into the anonymity of “the They,” where individual responsibility is diffused and genuine selfhood is obscured. Anxiety (Angst) serves as a pivotal, albeit unsettling, experience that can strip away the illusions of everyday conformity and reveal Dasein’s precarious, free, and finite nature. Thus, Heidegger’s project is to understand what it means to be human at the most fundamental level, before the categorizations imposed by science or traditional metaphysics, by examining the very structure of our being in the world.

D. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)

Radical Freedom, Responsibility, Anguish, and Bad Faith

Jean-Paul Sartre, a towering figure in 20th-century French philosophy, was a novelist, playwright, and political activist whose existentialist ideas captured the intellectual and cultural imagination of his time. His philosophy centers on the concepts of existence, radical freedom, profound responsibility, and the ethical implications of human consciousness in a godless universe.

As previously discussed, the tenet “existence precedes essence” is foundational to Sartre’s thought. Since there is no God to conceive of a human nature or purpose beforehand, humans first exist and then, through their choices and actions, create who they are. This leads directly to Sartre’s emphasis on radical freedom. He famously declared that humans are “condemned to be free”. This means we cannot escape our freedom; no determinism dictates our choices. Even refusing to choose is, in itself, a choice. This freedom is considered limitless in the sense that there is no external constraint on our obligation to choose ourselves in the face of our facticity (the given circumstances of our lives).

With this radical freedom comes absolute responsibility. If we are free to create ourselves, then we are entirely responsible for what we do and for what we become. Sartre extends this responsibility to universal proportions with the claim, “In fashioning myself, I fashion Man”. This means that when an individual makes a choice, they are not only committing themselves but are also implicitly positing an image of humanity as they believe it ought to be, effectively acting as a legislator for all humankind.

This profound sense of responsibility gives rise to several key existential emotions:

• Anguish (Angoisse): The feeling of total and deep responsibility that arises from the realization that our individual choices have universal implications and that we are choosing for all humanity.
• Abandonment (Délaissement): The loneliness and desolation that atheistic existentialists feel upon recognizing that there is no God to prescribe a moral code, provide guidance, or guarantee meaning. We are alone in the universe, the sole arbiters of our own essence.
• Despair (Désespoir): This arises from acknowledging the limits of our individual control over the world and the outcomes of our actions. It means relying only on what depends on our own will or on the sum of probabilities that make our action possible, without counting on external aid or a preordained positive outcome.

To flee from this freedom and responsibility is to live in Bad Faith (Mauvaise Foi). Bad faith is a form of self-deception where individuals deny their inherent freedom and attempt to see themselves as objects determined by external circumstances, their past, their emotions, or a fixed “human nature,” rather than as free and responsible consciousnesses. In his major philosophical work, Being and Nothingness (L’Être et le Néant), Sartre elaborates on two fundamental modes of being:

• Being-in-itself (L’être-en-soi): This is the being of non-conscious objects. It is static, opaque, complete in itself, and lacks freedom or potentiality.
• Being-for-itself (L’être-pour-soi): This is the being of consciousness. It is dynamic, translucent, incomplete, and characterized by freedom, negation, and a perpetual lack of fixed identity. Consciousness is always a consciousness of something, and it is defined by what it is not (its projects, its future possibilities) and is not what it is (its past, its facticity).

In his 1945 lecture, later published as Existentialism is a Humanism (L’existentialisme est un humanisme), Sartre offered a more accessible defense of his philosophy against common criticisms, such as the charges that it was overly pessimistic, encouraged quietism, or led to moral anarchy. He argued, to the contrary, that existentialism is an optimistic and liberating philosophy because it places human destiny entirely in human hands, making individuals the sole source of their values and meaning. However, Sartre himself later expressed regret over the publication of this lecture and distanced himself from some of the views presented in it, finding them overly simplistic.

Sartre’s radicalization of freedom and responsibility, while intended to be empowering, also generates an immense psychological and ethical burden. The assertion that “in fashioning myself, I fashion Man” universalizes the impact of individual choice to an almost unbearable degree, potentially leading directly to the very anguish he describes. This highlights a significant tension within his philosophical framework: the celebration of absolute, unconditioned freedom on one hand, and the potentially crushing weight of its implications on the other.

If “existence precedes essence” and we are “condemned to be free” in a godless universe without pre-given values or a fixed human nature, then every choice an individual makes contributes to defining not only themselves but also their conception of what humanity ought to be. Each person becomes, in effect, a “legislator for all mankind”. While this elevates the significance of every individual action, it also means that every personal failure or morally questionable choice carries implications for humanity as a whole, at least from the perspective of the chooser.

The “anguish” Sartre describes is a direct and logical consequence of this profound and inescapable responsibility. This dual aspect makes his philosophy both a radical affirmation of human potential for self-creation and a stark warning about the gravity inherent in exercising that potential. The concept of “bad faith”  then emerges as an understandable, albeit inauthentic, psychological mechanism for attempting to escape this formidable burden.

E. Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)

Existentialist Feminism and the Ethics of Ambiguity

Simone de Beauvoir, a prominent French existentialist philosopher, novelist, essayist, and feminist theorist, was a lifelong intellectual partner of Jean-Paul Sartre. Her work masterfully interweaves existentialist principles with a profound analysis of women’s oppression, making her a foundational figure in modern feminist thought.

Her most influential work, The Second Sex (Le Deuxième Sexe), published in 1949, is a monumental critique of patriarchal culture and the historical and societal mechanisms that have relegated women to a secondary and subordinate status relative to men. The book’s famous assertion, “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman”, encapsulates her central argument that “woman” as a social category, with its associated roles, expectations, and perceived characteristics, is largely a social construct rather than a fixed biological destiny. De Beauvoir contended that neither biology, psychology, nor economic factors can fully predetermine the way a human female manifests in society; rather, the cultural and social environment in which an individual develops plays a crucial role in shaping her identity and possibilities.

Drawing on existentialist concepts, particularly those of Sartre, de Beauvoir analyzed how women have historically been defined as “the Other” in relation to men, who occupy the position of the Self, the Absolute, the universal subject. Men define what it means to be human, and women are defined derivatively, as that which is not man, the inessential. This asymmetrical power dynamic, she argued, has systematically limited women’s freedom, their capacity for self-creation, and their access to projects that allow for transcendence.

De Beauvoir employed the concepts of immanence and transcendence to describe the differing spheres of existence historically assigned to women and men.

• Immanence refers to the traditional domain of women: a closed-off, static, and passive realm characterized by interiority, repetition (such as housework and child-rearing), and being immersed in the given, rather than actively shaping the world.
• Transcendence, conversely, designates the traditionally male lot: an active, creative, productive mode of being, extending outward into the world, engaging in projects, and shaping the future. De Beauvoir argued that women, like all human beings, possess the capacity for transcendence and must strive to reclaim it for genuine liberation.

Central to de Beauvoir’s existentialist feminism is the conviction that women must exercise their freedom and take responsibility for their lives by making conscious choices and acting as independent, self-defining individuals. Freedom is the paramount principle, requiring women to reject passively accepted, socially prescribed roles and to actively create their own destinies and values. She was critical of traditional institutions like marriage, which she often saw as contributing to women’s confinement, and strongly advocated for women’s economic independence and full participation in the workforce as crucial steps towards equality and liberation.

Simone de Beauvoir’s application of existentialist principles to the analysis of women’s situation effected a radical transformation in both existentialist philosophy and feminist theory. By demonstrating how the core existentialist tenet “existence precedes essence” applies directly to the construction of gender, she revealed that the perceived “essence” of womanhood—often characterized by passivity, emotionality, and domesticity—was not an inherent biological or psychological reality but largely a male-defined construct designed to justify and perpetuate women’s oppression. This powerful insight not only furnished a robust philosophical foundation for feminist critique but also significantly expanded the scope of existentialism itself.

It pushed the philosophy to engage more directly with concrete socio-political realities and systemic injustices, thereby moving beyond a potentially narrow focus on purely individualistic or abstract concerns about freedom. Existentialism, particularly in Sartre’s formulation, emphasizes radical freedom and self-creation.

De Beauvoir took this core idea and posed a critical question: how does this apply to women, who have historically been denied the social, economic, and political conditions necessary for such freedom and self-creation? Her answer, “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman” , directly applies the “existence precedes essence” formula to gender. The culturally defined “essence” of woman, she argued, is not a natural given but is constructed by a patriarchal society that systematically casts woman as “the Other” relative to man’s “Self”.

This societal construction relegates women to a state of “immanence,” denying them access to “transcendence”—the realm of projects, active engagement, and self-definition through free choice. Consequently, women’s liberation, for de Beauvoir, necessitates a conscious recognition of this socially constructed “essence” and an active, chosen effort to define oneself beyond its limitations, thereby embracing authentic freedom and responsibility. This analysis demonstrated that existential freedom is not merely an abstract philosophical concept but is profoundly intertwined with and affected by prevailing social, political, and economic conditions, compelling existentialism itself to become more socially and politically engaged.

F. Albert Camus (1913-1960)

The Absurd, Revolt, Freedom, and Passion

Albert Camus, a French-Algerian philosopher, novelist, playwright, and journalist, is a figure often closely associated with existentialism, though he sometimes resisted this label. His work is distinguished by its profound exploration of the Absurd, which stands as his central philosophical concept.

The absurd, for Camus, arises not from the world itself being inherently meaningless, nor from human reason being flawed, but rather from the confrontation or “juxtaposition” between humanity’s fundamental and persistent need to find meaning, order, and rational explanations in life, and the universe’s “unreasonable silence” or “formless chaos” in response to this longing. It is the unbridgeable gap between our desire for clarity and the opaque, indifferent nature of existence.

Camus masterfully elucidated this concept in his philosophical essay, The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe), published in 1942. In Greek mythology, Sisyphus was condemned by the gods to the eternal and futile task of rolling a massive boulder up a mountain, only to watch it roll back down each time he neared the summit. For Camus, Sisyphus becomes the archetypal absurd hero. His ceaseless, pointless labor serves as a powerful metaphor for the human condition, particularly for modern lives often spent in repetitive and seemingly meaningless tasks.

The crucial question posed at the beginning of The Myth of Sisyphus is whether the realization of life’s meaninglessness necessarily leads to suicide. Camus considers three primary responses to the awareness of the absurd:

1. Physical Suicide: Camus firmly rejects suicide as a legitimate response. To take one’s own life is to succumb to the absurd, to be defeated by it. Moreover, he argues that without human consciousness, the absurd itself cannot exist, as it is a relationship between humanity and the world.
2. Philosophical Suicide (The “Leap of Faith”): Camus is equally critical of attempts to escape the absurd by resorting to religious faith or other transcendent systems of belief that posit a meaning or purpose beyond the tangible world. He views such “leaps” (as seen in Kierkegaard, or other existentialists like Chestov and Jaspers, and even phenomenologists like Husserl, in his interpretation) as an evasion of the absurd, a refusal to live with the contradiction.
3. Revolt (or Rebellion): This is the response Camus advocates. Revolt involves living in full, lucid awareness of the absurd, without resignation or false hope, constantly maintaining the tension between human longing and the world’s silence. It is through this conscious rebellion that Sisyphus finds a form of meaning and even happiness. Camus famously concludes, “The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man’s heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy”.

From the full acknowledgment of the absurd, Camus derives three key consequences for living an absurd life:

• Revolt: As described, this is the persistent confrontation with the absurd, refusing to accept easy answers or escapes.
• Freedom: Once liberated from the illusion of inherent meaning, the hope for a better future in an afterlife, or the need to pursue a preordained purpose, the absurd individual “enjoys a freedom about common rules”. This is the freedom to live in the present.
• Passion: This involves embracing life with intensity and experiencing the richness and diversity of the world to the fullest extent possible. Since the ultimate meaning is absent, “What counts is not the best living but the most living”.

Camus’s literary works, such as the novel The Stranger (L’Étranger)  and plays like Caligula , further explore these absurdist themes through compelling characters and narratives.

Camus’s philosophy of the absurd offers a distinctive path to discovering meaning within a seemingly meaningless existence. This meaning is not found by transcending or denying the inherent lack of ultimate purpose, but by courageously embracing the tension itself.

The “happiness” attributed to Sisyphus is not one of blissful ignorance or naive optimism, but rather a hard-won contentment born from conscious, defiant affirmation of life despite its fundamental lack of an externally validated purpose.

This perspective redefines heroism not as the achievement of grand objectives but as an internal rebellion against cosmic indifference. The universe remains silent to our persistent pleas for meaning , creating the “absurd” condition. Suicide, whether physical or philosophical, represents an escape from, and thus a failure to authentically confront, this fundamental truth. The authentic human response, for Camus, is “revolt”—to live with the absurd, to keep the tension alive and vibrant.

This revolt manifests in a newfound “freedom” (freedom from false hopes, from imposed meanings, from the tyranny of future expectations) and a heightened “passion” (a commitment to experiencing the sheer quantity and intensity of life, since its ultimate qualitative meaning is absent). Sisyphus, in his futile yet conscious struggle, embodies this ideal. His task is objectively meaningless, yet in his lucid awareness of this meaninglessness, his scorn for his fate, and his persistent, repeated effort, he achieves a uniquely human victory.

The assertion, “One must imagine Sisyphus happy” , is therefore a radical reinterpretation of fulfillment—it is not contingent upon achieving a final goal, but is found in the quality and consciousness of the struggle itself. This makes meaning a product of human attitude, defiance, and lived experience, rather than an external or pre-given cosmic decree.

G. Other Significant Voices

(e.g., Karl Jaspers, Gabriel Marcel, Maurice Merleau-Ponty)

While figures like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, de Beauvoir, and Camus often dominate discussions of existentialism, the movement was enriched by other significant thinkers who contributed unique perspectives and expanded its thematic range.

Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) was a German psychiatrist and philosopher who, alongside Heidegger, was a principal representative of German existentialism. Jaspers’ philosophy emphasized the importance of what he termed “limit situations” (Grenzsituationen). These are unavoidable experiences such as death, suffering, guilt, and chance, which confront individuals with the boundaries of their existence and the insufficiency of purely rational or scientific understanding. Encountering these limit situations can shatter complacency and provoke a deeper existential awareness, potentially leading to a “leap” towards what Jaspers called Transcendence, or a more authentic understanding of selfhood. (It is worth noting that Sartre, in Existentialism is a Humanism, incorrectly identified Jaspers as a Catholic, a point later criticized.

Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973) was a French philosopher, playwright, and critic, often considered a leading voice of Christian existentialism. In contrast to the atheistic existentialism of Sartre, Marcel’s work explored themes of faith, hope, love, and fidelity. He drew a crucial distinction between a “problem,” which can be objectively analyzed and solved, and a “mystery,” in which the individual is personally involved and which cannot be fully comprehended from a detached standpoint (e.g., the mystery of being, of love, of evil). Marcel emphasized the importance of intersubjective relations, presence, and participation in being, rather than abstract speculation.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961) was a French phenomenologist whose work is closely associated with existentialism. His philosophy centered on the concept of the

lived body (le corps propre) as the primary locus of experience, perception, and engagement with the world. Merleau-Ponty challenged traditional Cartesian mind-body dualism, arguing that consciousness is inherently embodied and situated. His analyses explored the ambiguity of perception, the pre-reflective cogito, and the interconnectedness of the self and the world, emphasizing that our understanding of the world is mediated through our bodily being-in-the-world. It has been noted that there was a greater philosophical affinity between the Italian existentialist Nicola Abbagnano and Merleau-Ponty than between Merleau-Ponty and his compatriot Marcel.

The inclusion of these “other voices” is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of existentialism, as it demonstrates the movement’s internal diversity and intellectual richness. While sharing core concerns about the nature of human existence, freedom, and meaning, their individual approaches—Jaspers’ focus on limit situations and the call of Transcendence, Marcel’s theistic existentialism rooted in intersubjective experience and mystery, and Merleau-Ponty’s sophisticated phenomenology of the body and perception—show that existentialism is not a monolithic doctrine. Rather, it is a broad and fertile field of inquiry capable of accommodating varied interpretations and applications, engaging with a wide spectrum of human experiences (spiritual, embodied, relational, social) from a distinctively existential standpoint. Recognizing these diverse contributions prevents an oversimplification of the movement and highlights its capacity to generate nuanced perspectives on the multifaceted challenges of being human.

Important Concepts in Existentialism

A. The Ecstasy of Freedom

Freedom is arguably the most central and defining characteristic of human existence within existentialist thought. Existentialists assert that because human beings are self-conscious and exist for themselves—meaning they are aware of their own being and can project themselves into future possibilities, they are fundamentally free. This is not merely a political or social freedom, but a deeper, ontological freedom.

Jean-Paul Sartre’s famous phrase, “condemned to be free,” powerfully encapsulates the inescapable nature of this freedom. Humans cannot not be free; even the refusal to make a choice is, in itself, a choice with consequences. This freedom is radical because, in the absence of a pre-given human nature or a divine plan, there are no external guidelines or predetermined paths to follow.

We are the authors of our own lives, creating ourselves through the choices we make. While this capacity for self-creation is profoundly liberating, offering the “ecstasy” of boundless potential, this same freedom is also described as a significant “burden”. It is a burden because it is inextricably linked to total responsibility for what we become. Albert Camus, approaching from the perspective of absurdism, views freedom as a consequence of acknowledging the absurd: once liberated from the false hope of ultimate meaning or an eternal future, and free from the constraints of common rules designed for a meaningful universe, one is free to live more fully and passionately in the present moment.

The dual nature of freedom as both a source of exhilarating liberation and a source of profound burden is a core tension that runs through much of existentialist philosophy. It is not a simplistic celebration of liberty, but rather a deep and often unsettling recognition of its demanding implications.

The premise that “existence precedes essence”  means that individuals are the architects of their own lives. This is potentially ecstatic because it implies that we are not bound by a predetermined script or a fixed nature. However, if there is no pre-written script—no God, no inherent human nature to guide us —then we alone bear the responsibility for writing that script through our choices. This responsibility, especially when universalized, as Sartre does by suggesting that in choosing for ourselves we choose for all humanity , becomes an immense weight, potentially leading to the anguish that existentialists describe. Kierkegaard’s poignant observation that “anxiety is the dizziness of freedom”  perfectly captures this unsettling aspect of our liberty. Thus, existential freedom is consistently portrayed as a double-edged sword, offering both the promise of self-creation and the challenge of bearing its full weight.

B. Absolute Responsibility and Its Weight (Anguish, Despair)

Inextricably linked to the concept of radical freedom is the notion of absolute responsibility. Existentialists contend that if individuals are truly free to choose their actions and, ultimately, to define who they are, then they must also bear full responsibility for those choices and for the essence they create. This responsibility is not contingent upon external laws or divine judgment alone; it is an inherent consequence of freedom itself.

Sartre, in particular, emphasizes the radical extent of this responsibility, arguing that it extends not only to oneself but to all of humanity. His assertion, “In fashioning myself, I fashion Man” , implies that every individual choice helps to create an image of humanity as one believes it ought to be. This profound sense of having to choose for all humankind, without any pre-established values to guide the choice, leads to what Sartre terms anguish (angoisse). Anguish is the vertigo-inducing awareness of the total and deep responsibility that accompanies freedom.

Beyond anguish, Sartre also speaks of despair (désespoir). This is not a passive hopelessness, but rather a clear-sighted recognition of the limits of one’s control over the world and the outcomes of one’s actions. It involves relying only on what is within one’s own power and on the probabilities that make action possible, without appealing to external forces or guarantees. Kierkegaard, too, connected feelings of anxiety and despair directly to the exercise of free will and the necessity of making choices in a world of uncertainty. The overarching existentialist view is that a moral or praiseworthy life involves acknowledging and “owning up to our freedom, taking full responsibility for our choices”.

The existentialist concept of responsibility is particularly radical because it is often detached from external moral codes or the prospect of divine judgment. The “weight” of this responsibility stems from the individual’s acute self-awareness of being the sole source and arbiter of their values and actions. For some thinkers like Sartre, this extends to being the source of humanity’s collective image. This internal locus of responsibility, rather than an external one, is what makes it so profound, inescapable, and potentially anxiety-inducing. If there is no God or pre-given moral law to provide guidance or absolution, as in Sartre’s concept of “abandonment”, then traditional sources of moral accountability are absent. Yet, existentialists insist on absolute responsibility. This responsibility arises directly from freedom: if I am free to choose what I am, then I am what I choose.

The judgment is not primarily from an external authority, but from oneself and, for Sartre, from the image of humanity one projects through one’s actions. This makes the burden of responsibility deeply personal and an unavoidable aspect of the human condition, hence the associated feelings of weight and anguish.

C. The Quest for Authenticity in an Inauthentic World

A central ethical imperative within existentialism is the quest for authenticity. Authenticity involves a courageous acknowledgment of one’s radical freedom, a full acceptance of responsibility for one’s choices and actions, and a commitment to living in accordance with one’s true, self-chosen values, rather than passively conforming to external pressures or engaging in self-deception. It is about being true to the self that one is actively creating.

Conversely, inauthenticity represents a flight from this freedom and responsibility. Sartre famously analyzed this in his concept of “bad faith” (mauvaise foi) , where individuals deceive themselves by acting as if they are determined objects rather than free subjects, blaming circumstances, their nature, or societal roles for their actions. Heidegger described a similar mode of inauthentic existence as being lost in “the They” (das Man) , where one conforms to the anonymous norms and expectations of the crowd, thereby evading personal decision and genuine selfhood.

For Kierkegaard, authenticity is intimately linked to his notion of subjective truth and the passionate commitment to a chosen way of life, particularly in the ethical and religious spheres. For Heidegger, authenticity involves a resolute confrontation with one’s own finitude, especially one’s “being-towards-death,” which can call the individual away from the distractions of “the They” and towards their ownmost possibilities. The quest for authenticity is not a one-time achievement but an ongoing journey, a continuous process of aligning one’s actions with one’s deepest, freely chosen values and commitments. Sartre suggested that to grasp moral truth, one must cultivate certain personal qualities, emphasizing authenticity, honesty, and a refusal to merely follow the crowd, as these dispositions open individuals to the truth of their existence.

The existentialist quest for authenticity gains particular poignancy when viewed against the backdrop of the modern world, which is often perceived by existentialist thinkers as promoting various forms of inauthenticity. Mass culture, consumerism, the pressures of social conformity (amplified in contemporary times by phenomena like social media ), and the depersonalizing effects of bureaucratic structures can all conspire to alienate individuals from their true selves and encourage a life lived according to external scripts rather than internal conviction. In this context, authenticity becomes more than just a personal virtue; it emerges as an act of resistance against these homogenizing and often superficial forces.

Modern society, as critiqued by existentialists like Heidegger with his concept of “the They”  or Ortega y Gasset with his “mass man”, frequently encourages conformity and a flight from individual responsibility. Individuals may adopt roles or identities without genuine personal endorsement, living in what Sartre would term “bad faith”. The call for authenticity is therefore a summons to reclaim individuality and the power of self-determination in such an environment. It is not merely about being “true to oneself” in some vague or sentimental sense, but about consciously choosing and affirming one’s existence and values in the face of pervasive pressures to do otherwise. This makes the pursuit of authenticity a continuous, often arduous struggle and a critical, reflective stance towards prevailing societal norms and expectations.

D. Confronting the Absurd: The Search for Meaning in a Meaningless Universe

The concept of the absurd is a cornerstone of existentialist thought, most famously and explicitly articulated by Albert Camus. The absurd arises from the fundamental conflict, the “divorce” or “juxtaposition,” between humanity’s innate and persistent desire to find meaning, reason, and order in life, and the universe’s cold, indifferent silence or apparent chaos in response to this profound human need. It is not that the world itself

is absurd in an objective sense, nor that human thought is inherently flawed; rather, the absurd is born from the confrontation between the human “appetite for the absolute and for unity” and “the impossibility of reducing this world to a rational and reasonable principle”.

Kierkegaard, too, perceived reality as fundamentally absurd and unexplainable by reason alone, suggesting that faith was necessary to navigate this inherent irrationality. Existentialism as a whole grapples with this apparent meaninglessness, not necessarily by providing a new, definitive meaning to replace lost traditional ones, but by exploring how individuals can live authentically and purposefully in its very presence.

For Camus, the appropriate response to the absurd is not despair, resignation, or suicide (whether physical or “philosophical,” i.e., a leap of faith into a transcendent meaning system). Instead, he advocates for revolt, freedom, and passion. Revolt means living in full, lucid awareness of the absurd condition without attempting to escape it. Freedom is the consequence of this awareness—liberation from false hopes and the illusion of ultimate purpose. Passion involves embracing the intensity and multiplicity of life’s experiences. The search for meaning remains a central theme, but for many existentialists, especially atheistic ones, individuals are tasked not with discovering pre-existing meaning, but with actively creating their own meaning through their choices, actions, and commitments.

The “absurd” in existentialist thought, particularly in Camus’s formulation, should not be interpreted as an entirely negative or paralyzing concept. Instead, it often functions as the crucial starting point for human freedom and creativity. The very lack of a preordained cosmic meaning is precisely what allows and, indeed, compels human beings to forge their own subjective meanings and values.

The confrontation with the absurd, while initially unsettling, can serve as a powerful catalyst for a more intense, appreciated, and authentically lived life. If the universe were to provide clear, unambiguous meaning, human freedom to create and define meaning would be significantly curtailed or even rendered unnecessary. The “unreasonable silence of the universe”  creates a void.

For Camus, this void is the locus of the absurd. However, this void is also the space in which human action and self-creation can occur. Sisyphus’s task is objectively absurd and meaningless, yet his conscious awareness of this absurdity and his rebellion against his fate—his persistent effort despite the futility—create a uniquely human meaning. Similarly, for Sartre, the absence of an inherent essence or a divine plan is precisely what necessitates self-creation through choice. Thus, the apparent “meaninglessness” of the universe becomes, paradoxically, a precondition for the generation of humanly-created meaning.

E. The Primacy of Lived Experience and Subjectivity

A hallmark of existentialist philosophy is its profound emphasis on the individual’s lived, subjective experience as the primary locus of truth and meaning, particularly when it comes to understanding human existence itself. This represents a significant shift away from philosophical traditions that prioritized abstract speculation, universal principles, or purely objective analysis.

Kierkegaard’s famous assertion, “subjectivity is truth” , is a cornerstone of this perspective. He argued that when dealing with the ultimate concerns of life—how one should live, what one should value, the nature of one’s faith—objective, detached truths are insufficient. The highest truth attainable for an existing individual is a personal, passionately held conviction, a truth that is “true for me”. This subjective truth is not necessarily irrational, but it often transcends purely logical demonstration and is discovered and affirmed through personal engagement, feeling, and commitment.

Existentialist thinkers generally move away from the construction of rigid, all-encompassing theoretical systems. Instead, they often employ literary approaches, phenomenological descriptions, and analyses of concrete human situations to explore the realities of human existence. The focus is less on what can be known in an abstract, theoretical sense, and more on what it means to

be an existing individual faced with choices, responsibilities, and the search for meaning. As Kierkegaard put it, the crucial question for the individual is “what I am to do, not what I am to know” , highlighting the practical, ethical, and personal urgency of existential concerns.

The existentialist emphasis on subjectivity amounts to a methodological revolution as much as a doctrinal one. It fundamentally challenges the traditional philosophical privileging of objectivity and dispassionate reason by asserting that certain crucial truths, particularly those concerning human values, purpose, and ultimate commitments, are accessible only through personal engagement, passion, and the lived experience of choice.

Traditional philosophy often sought universal, objective truths, exemplified by Plato’s Forms or Hegel’s concept of the Absolute Spirit. Kierkegaard, in direct opposition, argued that such abstract, systematic approaches inevitably “cover over the deeply personal project of being human”. When it comes to the pressing questions of my existence, my choices, and my search for meaning, an objective, detached perspective proves inadequate.

The “truth which is true for me”  is not necessarily irrational, but it is often arational—it cannot be definitively proven by logic alone but is discovered and validated through the process of living.

This methodological shift reorients the philosophical focus from the purely cognitive subject, engaged in abstract thought, to the “ethically existing subject” , grappling with the concrete challenges and possibilities of their own life.

F. Alienation, Anxiety, and the Human Condition

Existentialism grapples unflinchingly with some of the more unsettling aspects of the human condition, including alienation, anxiety, and the awareness of finitude. These are often seen not merely as psychological states to be overcome, but as fundamental disclosures about what it means to be human.

Anxiety (Angst) is a pervasive theme in existentialist thought. It is typically understood not as a pathological condition requiring clinical treatment, but as an inherent and unavoidable part of human existence. This anxiety often stems from the awareness of our radical freedom, the weight of our responsibility, the realization of our finitude (particularly the inevitability of death), or the confrontation with a seemingly meaningless universe. Kierkegaard memorably described anxiety as “the dizziness of freedom” , the unsettling feeling that arises when we recognize the vast array of possibilities before us and the burden of choosing among them. For Heidegger, Angst is a fundamental mood that can recall Dasein to authenticity. For Sartre, anguish is the direct result of understanding the universal implications of our free choices.

Alienation is another significant concern, particularly in relation to the conditions of modernity. Existentialists often critique modern society—with its rapid industrialization, bureaucratization, mass culture, and the erosion of traditional communal bonds—as fostering various forms of alienation. Individuals can feel alienated from their true selves (by conforming to inauthentic roles), from other people (due to superficial relationships or social fragmentation), and from the natural world or a sense of meaningful engagement with their environment.

These experiences of anxiety and alienation are part of the broader human condition as understood by existentialists. This condition is characterized by “thrownness” (being cast into existence without choosing it), finitude (the certainty of death), the inescapable necessity of making choices, the persistent search for meaning in a world that may not provide it, and the experience of fundamental isolation. Irvin Yalom, a key figure in existential psychotherapy, identified four “ultimate concerns” or “givens” of existence that define the human condition: death, freedom, existential isolation (the unbridgeable gap between oneself and others, and between oneself and the world), and meaninglessness.

Existentialism reframes traditionally negative emotions like anxiety and experiences like alienation not merely as psychological problems to be eradicated, but as philosophically significant disclosures about the very nature of human existence. They are viewed as signals that point towards fundamental truths about our freedom, our situatedness in the world, our responsibility, and our confrontation with the limits and possibilities of life. In many conventional psychological models, anxiety is primarily a symptom to be treated and alleviated.

For existentialists, however, anxiety—whether it is Kierkegaard’s “dizziness of freedom”, Heidegger’s Angst, which reveals the structure of Being-in-the-world, or Sartre’s anguish stemming from profound responsibility is a revelation. It reveals our ungrounded freedom, our inescapable responsibility, and our lack of an ultimate foundation. Similarly, alienation, as depicted in critiques of modern society, is not just a social ill; it points to a deeper human possibility of being estranged from an authentic mode of existence or a meaningful connection to the world and others.

These experiences as philosophically significant, existentialism encourages a courageous confrontation with them, rather than a mere attempt at their suppression or avoidance, seeing in them the potential for deeper self-understanding and a more authentic engagement with life.

Different Views and Opinions

A. Theistic Existentialism:

Finding Meaning with or through God

While existentialism is often associated with atheism, particularly due to the prominence of figures like Sartre and Camus, there is a significant strand known as theistic existentialism. This approach affirms a belief in the existence of God and recognizes God’s place in human affairs and development. However, it typically remains human-centered in its starting point, focusing on how individuals exist and relate to a God who is considered present and influential, rather than beginning with abstract theological doctrines about God’s nature.

Key figures associated with theistic existentialism include Søren Kierkegaard , the Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky (whose works deeply explore religious faith and doubt from an existential perspective), Gabriel Marcel , Karl Jaspers  (though his relationship with specific dogma is complex), and theologians like Paul Tillich  and Martin Buber.

For Kierkegaard, the universe is fundamentally paradoxical, and the greatest paradox is the Incarnation—the transcendent union of God and humans in the person of Jesus Christ. He argued that belief in God, particularly in the Christian sense, cannot be based on rational proof but requires a subjective “leap of faith” that embraces the absurd and the objectively uncertain. Humans exist with a consciousness of being created, and this awareness shapes their existential journey.

In theistic existentialism, God may be seen as having designed a world in which individuals are nonetheless free and responsible for defining their own lives and are held accountable for their self-identity. Authenticity is often found in recognizing divine influences and embracing moral responsibility within a framework that acknowledges a transcendent dimension. Kierkegaard’s three stages of life—aesthetic, ethical, and religious—are all influenced by the individual’s growing recognition of and response to divine reality. Gabriel Marcel emphasized a reciprocal relationship between a living, personal God and the finite self, suggesting that the direct experience of God’s presence can negate the need for formal proofs of His existence. He stressed themes like hope, fidelity, and the importance of intersubjective communion. Karl Jaspers spoke of “philosophical faith” and the possibility of guidance by faith, love, and insight in the human effort to improve life. The focus is generally on the personal, subjective, and lived relationship with God, rather than on adherence to rigid dogmatic systems.

Theistic existentialism navigates a unique and often challenging tension: it seeks to affirm both the reality of a divine presence or ultimate concern and the core existentialist emphasis on human freedom, choice, and responsibility. It suggests that God’s existence does not necessarily negate or alleviate the existential burden of choice that defines the human condition. Instead, the divine may be seen as the ground or context for this freedom, often requiring a deeply personal, non-rational commitment—a leap of faith—to bridge the perceived gap between the finite human and the infinite divine. If God exists and has a purpose for humanity, how can individuals be radically free and responsible for creating their own essence, as existentialism broadly posits? Theistic existentialists like Kierkegaard address this by emphasizing that God’s relationship with the individual is not one of deterministic control that overrides human agency. Rather, it is a relationship that calls for a personal, free response from the individual—the aforementioned “leap of faith”.

The “absurdity” for Kierkegaard lies precisely in the idea that this God, the eternal and infinite, enters into a genuine relationship with the finite, temporal individual. Meaning, in this context, is not simply handed down as a set of divine decrees; it is realized and actualized in the individual’s passionate, subjective engagement with this divine reality. Thus, for theistic existentialists, God doesn’t remove the existential dilemmas of freedom and choice but reframes them, often intensifying the personal responsibility involved in responding to a divine call or presence.

B. Atheistic Existentialism: Creating Meaning in a Godless Universe

Atheistic existentialism represents the strand of the movement that explicitly denies or excludes the existence of God, or any other transcendental, metaphysical, or religious beliefs, as a basis for understanding human existence and finding meaning. It maintains that subjective existence precedes essence in a universe devoid of inherent purpose or divine oversight.

Prominent figures in atheistic existentialism include Jean-Paul Sartre , Simone de Beauvoir , Albert Camus (whose philosophy, though he sometimes resisted the “existentialist” label, operates within a godless framework) , and Friedrich Nietzsche, whose proclamation “God is dead” is a foundational statement for this perspective.

The core argument of atheistic existentialism is that if God does not exist, then there is no pre-given human nature, no divine plan to follow, and no externally imposed set of values. As Sartre famously put it, humans are “abandoned”—left alone in the universe to create their own essence and values through their choices and actions. Meaning is not something to be discovered as an objective truth; it is something that must be actively created by the individual. Consequently, morality is also subjective, arising from individual commitments rather than divine commands or universal laws.

Life, from this perspective, may be seen as ultimately futile or meaningless in a grand cosmic sense, as there is no overarching purpose or guarantee of ultimate significance. Sartre described the human person as a “useless passion,” deeply invested in an existence that inevitably ends at the grave, rendering life, from an objective standpoint, devoid of inherent values. However, this realization of cosmic meaninglessness does not necessarily lead to despair or inaction. On the contrary, for figures like Camus, it can be the catalyst for living more passionately and freely in the present. For Sartre, the lack of pre-given meaning underscores the absolute freedom and responsibility of individuals to define themselves and their world. Atheistic existentialism rejects the notion of “created” meaning in the sense of a divine creator, and also typically rejects the idea that a “leap of faith” is necessary or even desirable for an authentic life. Indeed, belief in God or adherence to externally imposed value systems can be seen as a form of “Bad Faith”—a denial of one’s own freedom and responsibility by seeking refuge in illusory certainties.

Atheistic existentialism represents the most radical interpretation and application of the principle that “existence precedes essence.” By entirely removing God and any form of transcendent reality from the philosophical equation, it places the full, unmitigated burden—and the exhilarating possibility—of meaning-creation and moral responsibility squarely onto the shoulders of the individual.

This stance can be perceived as either terrifyingly bleak, given the lack of ultimate grounding or cosmic validation, or as profoundly liberating, offering an unparalleled scope for human autonomy and self-determination. If there is no God , then there are no pre-ordained values, no divine purpose for humanity, and no ultimate judge to appeal to.

This is the condition Sartre describes as “abandonment”. This condition implies that humans are radically free. But this freedom exists in a vacuum of inherent meaning. All meaning, all values, must therefore be invented or created through human choice and action.

This is the ultimate consequence of “existence precedes essence” when there is no divine “artisan” to conceive of the essence prior to existence. The human being is, as Sartre suggested, a “useless passion”  in the sense that there is no external or transcendent validation for their strivings and commitments, yet they are nonetheless compelled by their very nature as conscious, free beings to strive and to create meaning.

C. Existentialism in Contrast: Nihilism, Absurdism, and Humanism

Understanding existentialism is often clarified by contrasting it with related but distinct philosophical positions, particularly nihilism and absurdism, and by considering its complex relationship with humanism.

• Nihilism: Nihilism is the philosophical position that life has no inherent meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value, and that all values are ultimately baseless or unfounded. While existentialism, especially its atheistic forms, often starts from a recognition of a similar lack of inherent, objective meaning in the universe (a premise that can be described as nihilistic), it diverges significantly in its response.
• Difference: Existentialism generally does not end in a declaration of utter meaninglessness or a call for passive despair. Instead, it emphasizes that even if the universe offers no pre-given meaning, human beings have the freedom and responsibility to create their own subjective meaning and values through their choices and actions. Nihilism, in its most stark and consistent form, might deny the possibility or even the point of such meaning-creation, viewing all such efforts as equally futile. Thus, existentialism can be seen as a
  response to the challenge of nihilism, rather than an endorsement of it.
• Absurdism: Primarily associated with Albert Camus, absurdism focuses specifically on the conflict or “divorce” that arises between humanity’s persistent search for meaning, order, and rational understanding, and the universe’s apparent indifference and meaninglessness.
• Difference: While existentialism broadly addresses the problem of meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe, absurdism hones in on this specific tension between human longing and cosmic silence. The characteristic response to the absurd, as advocated by Camus, is not to try to resolve the contradiction or escape it, but to live in conscious revolt against it, embracing the absurd with freedom, passion, and a defiant joy. Existentialism is a broader philosophical movement encompassing various approaches to meaning-creation; absurdism is a particular stance, often considered a part of or closely allied with existentialism, that emphasizes this specific confrontation and the attitude of rebellion.
• Humanism: Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the potential and agency of human beings, preferring critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. It typically affirms the dignity and worth of all people and their capacity for self-realization through reason. Jean-Paul Sartre famously titled his 945 lecture Existentialism is a Humanism. He argued that because humans are nothing before they define themselves, and because they are responsible for creating their own essence and values, they are the sole foundation of value. In this sense, “man is the future of man,” and human destiny lies entirely within human hands.
• Connection/Difference: Sartre’s existential humanism re-centers value in humanity itself after the “death of God.” However, the relationship between existentialism and humanism is complex and contested. Some critics argue that existentialism, with its emphasis on themes like anguish, despair, and the absurdity of existence, is fundamentally anti-humanistic or overly pessimistic. Conversely, some postmodern theorists have criticized existentialism (particularly Sartre’s version) for being too humanistic, in the sense that it remains trapped within the traditional philosophical idea of a central, autonomous, self-determining human subject, a notion that postmodernism seeks to deconstruct.

These related philosophies can be conceptualized as occupying different points on a spectrum of responses to the perceived collapse of traditional meaning frameworks in the modern world. The journey often begins with a shared starting point: the questioning or outright rejection of traditional sources of meaning, such as God or objective, universal values, as articulated by Nietzsche’s “death of God”  and fueled by processes of secularization. From this point, nihilism represents the stark recognition of meaninglessness, a position that can potentially lead to despair or inaction. Absurdism, as formulated by Camus, acknowledges this fundamental meaninglessness but advocates a defiant and passionate embrace of life in the face of this truth; meaning is found in the rebellion itself. Existentialism, in its various forms (particularly atheistic versions like Sartre’s and de Beauvoir’s), goes a step further by emphasizing the active

creation of subjective meaning and value through individual choice and commitment, asserting radical freedom and responsibility in this constructive endeavor. Sartre’s existential humanism then attempts to re-center all value in humanity itself, as the sole author of its own destiny. This progression illustrates a shift from a potentially passive or despairing recognition of meaninglessness (nihilism) to increasingly active and affirmative responses of defiance (absurdism) and creation (existentialism).

To further clarify these distinctions, the following table provides a comparative overview:

Table 1: Comparative Overview: Existentialism, Nihilism, and Absurdism

Philosophy	View on Inherent Meaning	Human Response to (Lack of) Meaninglessness	Key Proponents Mentioned
Nihilism	None; all values are baseless, life lacks intrinsic purpose.	Often leads to despair, rejection of meaning-creation as futile.	(Nietzsche diagnosed it, though he sought to overcome it)
Absurdism	None; human search for it is in conflict with this lack.	Rebel against the absurd, live passionately, embrace freedom and the present.	Albert Camus
Existentialism	None (atheistic); or meaning found via faith (theistic).	Create subjective meaning and values through choice, action, and commitment.	Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir; Søren Kierkegaard

This table offers a concise summary, highlighting how these philosophies, while often intertwined in discussions about meaning, offer distinct perspectives and prescriptions for navigating the human condition.

The Existentialist Imprint: Influence Beyond Philosophy

A. Echoes in Literature and Drama (e.g., Dostoevsky, Kafka, Beckett)

The profound questions and themes central to existentialism—such as alienation, the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe, the burden of freedom, the nature of authenticity, the confrontation with nihilism, and the experience of the absurd—have found potent expression in literature and drama. Many authors, some predating the formal philosophical movement and others contemporary with it, are considered precursors or key exemplars of existentialist literature, their works embodying these complex ideas in compelling narratives and characters.

Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881), the great Russian novelist, is frequently cited as a crucial literary forerunner of existentialism. His major works, including

Notes from Underground, Crime and Punishment, and The Brothers Karamazov, delve into the psychological depths of characters grappling with radical freedom, moral paradoxes, suffering, responsibility, and the spiritual consequences of nihilism.

Notes from Underground, with its alienated and self-tormenting narrator who champions irrational caprice against deterministic reason, is often regarded by critics like Walter Kaufmann as the first existentialist novel. Dostoevsky’s characters frequently wrestle with their faith, confront the possibility of a godless world, and search desperately for meaning amidst profound suffering and social upheaval.

Franz Kafka (1883-1924), the German-speaking Bohemian novelist, created haunting fictional worlds that vividly depict individuals ensnared in absurd, incomprehensible, and oppressive bureaucratic systems. In works like

The Trial and The Metamorphosis, Kafka’s protagonists experience profound alienation, powerlessness, and existential dread as they navigate realities governed by arbitrary and inscrutable forces. His characters often find themselves isolated, unable to communicate effectively, and burdened by an inexplicable guilt. Albert Camus, in

The Myth of Sisyphus, dedicated an appendix to Kafka’s work, admiring him for perfectly expressing the absurd predicament of humanity, even if Kafka ultimately, in Camus’s view, made a “leap of faith” rather than fully embracing the absurd.

Other literary figures have also explored existentialist themes. Ralph Ellison, in his novel Invisible Man, powerfully portrayed the existential struggles of an African American man grappling with issues of identity, visibility, and alienation in a racially stratified society. Playwrights such as

Samuel Beckett, particularly in iconic works like Waiting for Godot, are strongly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd, which shares many thematic concerns with existentialism, including the apparent meaninglessness of existence, the failure of communication, and the human condition of waiting for a salvation or significance that never arrives.

The enduring power of existentialist literature lies in its capacity to translate abstract philosophical concepts into the concrete, lived experiences of fictional characters and the compelling dynamics of narrative. These authors often explore the profound psychological and emotional consequences of living in what might be termed an existentialist universe. They do not merely discuss freedom, anguish, or absurdity as philosophical propositions; they show readers characters who are viscerally experiencing these states. For instance, Raskolnikov’s intellectual and spiritual torment following his decision to murder in Crime and Punishment vividly illustrates the weight of freedom and responsibility. Joseph K.’s bewildering and futile struggle against an unseen and illogical legal system in

The Trial makes the philosophical concept of the absurd palpable. Gregor Samsa’s inexplicable transformation and subsequent alienation in

The Metamorphosis brings home the themes of isolation and the fragility of identity. This narrative embodiment allows readers to

feel the impact of existential concerns, not just to comprehend them intellectually. It is this ability to make the philosophical personal and immediate that explains why these literary figures are so crucial to understanding the broader cultural resonance and enduring influence of existentialist thought.

B. Existentialism on Screen: Cinematic Explorations

The themes and moods of existentialism have also found a compelling medium in film, where directors have explored narratives of characters confronting the absurdity of existence, the burden of freedom, the search for meaning, and the anxieties of modern life. The visual and auditory nature of cinema allows for powerful portrayals of subjective experience, alienation, and the often-unsettling atmosphere that pervades existentialist thought.

A number of internationally acclaimed directors are frequently cited for their engagement with existentialist ideas, including Ingmar Bergman (Sweden), Michelangelo Antonioni (Italy), Jean-Luc Godard (France), Akira Kurosawa (Japan), and Terrence Malick (USA). Their films often feature protagonists who are isolated, questioning the purpose of their lives, or struggling with moral dilemmas in a seemingly indifferent world.

Specific films that have been identified as having strong existentialist currents include:

• Abbas Kiarostami’s Like Someone in Love (2012), which portrays a protagonist feeling trapped, ashamed, and burdened by loneliness.
• Marc Forster’s Stranger than Fiction (2006), where a man discovers he is a character in a novel and attempts to fight against his predetermined fate, prompting questions about free will and the predictability of daily routines.
• Lars von Trier’s Melancholia (2011), an apocalyptic film that explores existential dread and interpersonal relationships in the face of impending doom.
• Alexander Payne’s Sideways (2004), a road trip film where middle-aged men grapple with failure, anxiety, and the search for purpose and adventure.
• Charlie Kaufman’s Anomalisa (2015) and Synecdoche, New York (2008), which delve into themes of alienation, the difficulty of connecting with others, and the heartbreaking struggle to capture the entirety of life through art.
• Paolo Sorrentino’s The Great Beauty (La Grande Bellezza, 2013), following an aging journalist reflecting on his life and searching for meaning amidst the socialite world of Rome.
• David Fincher’s Fight Club (1999), offering a visceral commentary on consumerist culture, alienation, and the violent search for authenticity.
• Alejandro G. Iñárritu’s Birdman (2014), which showcases the flaws of fame and the struggle for relevance and artistic integrity.

Even earlier cinema touched upon these profound themes. F.W. Murnau’s silent film The Last Laugh (1924) explored the loss of identity and self-worth when a hotel doorman is demoted. Charlie Chaplin’s

Modern Times (1936) depicted a world of randomness and chance, where the Tramp embraces uncertainty. Film noir, as a genre, often carries existential undertones with its focus on crime, greed, and fate in an uncaring world, as seen in Robert Siodmak’s

The Killers (1946), where a character passively accepts his impending murder as an inescapable fate, his choice an apparent last act of freedom. Akira Kurosawa’s

Ikiru (1952) powerfully portrays a bureaucrat who, diagnosed with a terminal illness, embarks on a desperate quest for meaning in his final months, finding it in a small act of civic good. Orson Welles’ adaptation of Kafka’s

The Trial (1962) brought the absurdity of bureaucratic alienation to the screen.

Film, as a uniquely immersive narrative and visual medium, offers a particularly effective way to explore the moods, atmospheres, and situations that are central to existentialist philosophy. It can vividly depict the subjective experience of alienation, the unsettling confrontation with absurdity, or the arduous struggle for authenticity in ways that resonate deeply and emotionally with audiences. Through techniques such as point-of-view shots, internal monologues, evocative cinematography, and symbolic imagery, filmmakers can draw viewers into the inner worlds of characters grappling with existential dilemmas. Films like Kurosawa’s Ikiru  can visually and emotionally convey the urgency of finding meaning in the face of death, a core existential concern highlighted by psychotherapists like Yalom. The cinematic depiction of bizarre or surreal situations, as seen in adaptations of Kafka or in the works of Charlie Kaufman , can make the philosophical concept of absurdity more tangible and relatable than abstract discourse alone. This capacity to make the existential personal and experiential has made film a significant vehicle for disseminating existentialist questions and sensibilities to a broader public, often popularizing these profound inquiries beyond the confines of academic philosophy.

C. Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy: From Theory to Practice (e.g., Frankl, Yalom, May)

The insights and concerns of existentialist philosophy have had a profound and lasting impact on the fields of psychology and psychotherapy, leading to the development of specific therapeutic approaches that focus on individual experience, freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in human life. This therapeutic tradition often stands in contrast to more deterministic or mechanistic models of the human psyche.

Several key figures were instrumental in translating existentialist philosophy into therapeutic practice. Rollo May is widely considered the “father” of existential therapy in America, and his writings helped to establish existential-humanistic therapy as a significant force.

Viktor Frankl, an Austrian psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor, developed Logotherapy, a school of psychotherapy based on the premise that the primary motivational force in human beings is a “will to meaning”. Frankl argued that meaning can be found even in the midst of extreme suffering, and his work emphasizes helping clients discover or create personal meaning in their lives.

Irvin Yalom, a contemporary American psychiatrist, further systematized existential psychotherapy by identifying four fundamental “givens” or “ultimate concerns” of existence: death, freedom (and its attendant responsibility), existential isolation, and meaninglessness. Therapy, in Yalom’s view, involves helping clients confront these inevitable aspects of the human condition. Other important pioneers include European psychiatrists like

Ludwig Binswanger and Medard Boss, who developed Daseinsanalysis, an approach that merged Freudian psychoanalysis with Martin Heidegger’s existential phenomenology, focusing on understanding the client’s unique “Being-in-the-world” (Dasein) rather than merely diagnosing symptoms.

The core concepts of existential therapy revolve around these fundamental human concerns. The awareness of death can provoke anxiety but also imbue life with urgency and significance. The reality of

freedom means individuals are responsible for their choices and the construction of their lives, which can be both empowering and burdensome.

Existential isolation refers to the unbridgeable gap between oneself and others, and the fundamental aloneness of individual consciousness, despite our need for connection. The apparent

meaninglessness of the universe in a cosmic sense impels individuals to create their own personal meanings through their values, commitments, and actions.

A central aim of existential therapy is to help clients achieve authenticity—living in a way that is true to their own values and choices, and taking responsibility for their existence.

Existential anxiety is generally viewed not as a pathology to be eliminated, but as a normal and inevitable response to confronting the “givens” of existence. Working through this anxiety can be a source of growth and self-discovery. The therapeutic approach emphasizes the client’s subjective experience, with the therapist often “bracketing” their own biases to better understand the client’s lived reality. It is less about applying specific techniques to remove symptoms and more about fostering a genuine encounter in which the client can explore their mode of “being-in-the-world” and make conscious choices towards a more meaningful life. Common therapeutic methods include open and honest dialogue, deep exploration of personal experiences, values, and beliefs, challenging limiting assumptions, and encouraging creative expression as a means of processing emotions and insights. The anticipated benefits include increased self-awareness, improved decision-making skills, stronger resilience in the face of life’s challenges, reduced anxiety, enhanced personal development, and a greater sense of empowerment.

Existential psychotherapy represents a profound humanization of mental health treatment. By shifting the primary focus from a purely medical or symptom-based model, which can sometimes pathologize human distress , to an exploration of fundamental human concerns and capacities, it empowers individuals to find meaning and authenticity

within their struggles, rather than viewing those struggles merely as illnesses to be cured or eradicated. This approach draws deeply from philosophers like Kierkegaard, who saw anxiety as the “dizziness of freedom” , and Heidegger, for whom Angst could be a disclosure of one’s authentic possibilities. It acknowledges that experiences of suffering, anxiety, and uncertainty are not just negative symptoms but can be powerful catalysts for personal growth, deeper self-understanding, and a more engaged way of living. Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy , forged in the crucible of his experiences in Nazi concentration camps, provides a compelling testament to the human capacity to find meaning even in the most extreme and desperate circumstances. The therapeutic process, therefore, is often less about eliminating anxiety and more about assisting the client in courageously confronting their freedom, responsibility, finitude, and potential for isolation , with the ultimate goal of fostering a more authentic and meaningful life. This approach inherently respects the client’s capacity for self-awareness, choice, and self-determination, making it a deeply empowering form of therapy.

Critical Perspectives and Contemporary Significance

A. Challenges and Criticisms: Ethical, Social, and Philosophical Objections

Despite its profound influence and enduring appeal, existentialism has faced a range of challenges and criticisms from various philosophical, ethical, and social perspectives.

One common line of attack is that existentialism promotes nihilism or undermines ethics. Critics argue that by rejecting absolute moral principles and emphasizing radical individual freedom, existentialism can lead to an “anything-goes” mentality, moral relativism, or a sense of despair if individuals fail to successfully create their own meaning. Albert Camus’s novel

The Stranger, with its detached protagonist Meursault, has sometimes been cited (though often disputed by supporters of Camus) as an example of a work that seems to glorify immoral or “gratuitous acts” performed in the name of affirming absolute freedom.

Another frequent criticism is that existentialism places an overemphasis on individualism. The intense focus on personal freedom, subjective experience, and self-creation is seen by some as neglecting the importance of community, social interconnectedness, shared values, and collective responsibility. This can lead to a portrayal of the individual as isolated or even selfish, potentially underestimating the role of social structures and historical forces in shaping human lives. Marxist thought, for instance, with its emphasis on collective struggle and socio-economic determinism, offered a strong counterpoint to what it perceived as existentialism’s bourgeois individualism.

Relatedly, existentialism has been accused of offering a lack of clear ethical guidance. If each individual must create their own values from scratch, without recourse to universal moral principles or divine commands, critics question how one can definitively know right from wrong or make sound ethical judgments that extend beyond personal preference. This perceived lack of a concrete ethical framework is a significant concern for those seeking more prescriptive moral theories.

Some critics also point to a perceived contradiction between freedom and responsibility in existentialist thought, arguing that placing such an immense and absolute burden of responsibility on entirely free individuals, who lack any external support or guidance, is an unrealistic and potentially crushing demand. Furthermore, the strong emphasis on individual perception and subjective experience shaping reality has led to charges of

disregarding objective reality or promoting an untenable subjectivism, which could undermine the possibility of shared truths or factual understanding of the world.

The existentialist preoccupation with themes like anguish, anxiety, despair, and suffering has also led to the criticism that it exaggerates the negative aspects of human existence, potentially overlooking or downplaying the capacity for joy, happiness, connection, and inherent meaning found in everyday life.

From the perspective of postmodernism, a significant critique is that existentialism remains trapped within the assumptions of “Humanism”—specifically, the modern philosophical idea of a central, self-transparent, and self-determining human subject who stands as the master of meaning. Postmodern theorists, influenced by thinkers like Ferdinand de Saussure (on the structuring power of language) and Sigmund Freud (on the role of unconscious drives), argue that human autonomy is far more constrained and mediated by linguistic, social, and psychological structures than existentialists typically acknowledge.

Finally, some commentators have suggested that many existentialist ideas, particularly those that gained prominence in the post-World War II era of the 1940s and 1950s, now seem outdated or less relevant. It is argued that existentialism’s concerns with metaphysical anxiety, meaninglessness, and the burden of freedom resonate less in contemporary Western societies, which are often characterized by consumerism, media saturation, technological advancement, and a focus on material well-being and pragmatic concerns. Even Sartre’s influential lecture,

Existentialism is a Humanism, faced contemporary criticisms: Heidegger found its central thesis (“existence precedes essence”) to be merely a reversal of a traditional metaphysical statement rather than a genuine overcoming of metaphysics. Marjorie Grene considered its discussion of interpersonal relations to be weaker than that found in Sartre’s earlier, more substantial work, Being and Nothingness. Walter Kaufmann, while acknowledging its brilliance, noted that it bore “the stamp of the moment” and contained factual errors, such as misidentifying Karl Jaspers as a Catholic.

It is important to note that many of these criticisms of existentialism may stem from a misunderstanding of its diverse expressions or a selective reading that focuses on particular thinkers (often Sartre) to the exclusion of others. For instance, while Sartre’s radical individualism is a legitimate target for critique, other existentialist philosophers like Gabriel Marcel placed great emphasis on intersubjectivity and communion, and Simone de Beauvoir powerfully applied existentialist principles to analyze and critique systemic social injustices related to gender. Furthermore, the charge that existentialism inevitably promotes nihilism often overlooks the fact that existentialism is typically framed as a response to the challenge of nihilism—an attempt to find a way to live meaningfully despite the collapse of traditional values and transcendent guarantees. The postmodern critique of the “subject” is indeed significant; however, it is also true that existentialist thinkers like Heidegger, with his concept of “Being-in-the-world” , and Merleau-Ponty, with his focus on the lived body , had already offered nuanced and critical perspectives on the nature of the human subject that moved beyond a simplistic Cartesian model of a disembodied, fully transparent consciousness. Thus, a careful and comprehensive reading of the existentialist tradition reveals that it contains within itself resources to counter, or at least complicate, many of the common criticisms leveled against it.

B. The Enduring Relevance of Existentialism in the 21st Century (e.g., Identity, Technology, Social Justice)

Despite arguments that its heyday has passed or that some of its concerns seem dated, many core themes of existentialism retain, and in some cases have gained, a striking relevance in the 21st century. The challenges and anxieties of contemporary life often echo the very questions that existentialist thinkers grappled with.

The call for authenticity is particularly pertinent in the digital age. The proliferation of social media platforms often encourages the cultivation of curated, idealized online personas, which can lead to a significant disconnect between an individual’s public presentation and their private, real self. Existentialism’s emphasis on being true to oneself, making honest choices, and resisting the pressure to conform to external expectations (Sartre’s call to refuse to merely follow the crowd ) offers a valuable counter-narrative to these pressures.

Modern life frequently requires individuals to navigate multiple identities and roles—professional, familial, social, and personal. Existentialism’s stress on taking responsibility for one’s choices and actions across these different contexts, and striving for coherence and integrity, remains a useful framework. Similarly, in a world characterized by rapid change, complexity, and inherent unpredictability, existentialism’s acceptance of

ambiguity and uncertainty as fundamental aspects of human existence can foster resilience and a greater capacity to cope with the unforeseeable.

The existentialist emphasis on individual freedom and responsibility also carries significant implications for social justice. Recognizing the impact of individual actions (and inactions) on broader societal structures and committing to work towards positive change can be understood as an existential imperative. Simone de Beauvoir’s feminist existentialism, which deconstructed the social category of “woman” and called for women’s liberation and self-definition, is a prime example of how existentialist thought can fuel movements for social change.

In an increasingly secular age, the individual quest for meaning, a central preoccupation of existentialism, remains a vital human concern. As traditional sources of meaning may wane for some, the existentialist focus on creating personal meaning through commitment, engagement, and value-creation continues to resonate. Furthermore, the modern world often presents an overwhelming array of choices and an abundance of information, which can lead to

anxiety and “analysis paralysis.” Existential therapy, with its focus on clarifying values, confronting choices, and building resilience, offers practical tools for navigating these contemporary challenges.

Existentialist critiques of inauthentic conformity (such as Heidegger’s concept of “the They” ) and alienation remain highly relevant in consumer-driven societies that often promote superficiality and material pursuits over deeper, more authentic modes of living.

The very societal trends that some critics argue have rendered existentialism “outdated”—such as the pervasive influence of technology, the pressures of consumer culture, and the complexities of globalization —may, in fact, be creating new forms of alienation, inauthenticity, and crises of meaning that make existentialist questions more urgent and relevant than ever. The constant connectivity of the digital age can paradoxically lead to deeper feelings of isolation; the relentless pursuit of material goods can leave individuals feeling empty and unfulfilled; the sheer pace of change can exacerbate feelings of normlessness or “anomie”. In such a context, the existentialist call for profound self-reflection , authentic choice , unwavering personal responsibility , and the courageous creation of personal meaning becomes not an anachronism, but a vital counter-narrative and a set of indispensable tools for critiquing and navigating the specific anxieties and challenges of st-century life.

Narrative of Human Existence

Existentialism, in its multifaceted expressions, stands as a diverse yet coherent philosophical movement, consistently directing its gaze towards the concrete realities of human existence. Its enduring concerns—freedom, choice, responsibility, the search for meaning, and the pursuit of authenticity—continue to resonate deeply with the human condition. It emerged from and spoke to periods of profound crisis, offering not easy consolations but a stark and often challenging call to confront the fundamental questions of what it means to be human.

The core challenge posed by existentialism is the imperative to live authentically and responsibly in a world that often appears absurd, indifferent, or devoid of inherent meaning. This is not a challenge that can be definitively met or a question that can be finally answered; rather, it is an ongoing task that each individual and every generation must grapple with anew. The “unfolding narrative” of human existence implies that the dilemmas and possibilities explored by existentialist thinkers are never fully resolved or exhausted. Instead, they are continually re-engaged, reinterpreted, and re-evaluated in light of new human experiences, evolving societal contexts, and fresh intellectual currents.

Perhaps the ultimate legacy of existentialism lies in its persistent capacity to unsettle complacency. It forces a confrontation with uncomfortable truths about our freedom, the weight of our choices, and the responsibility we bear for creating not only our own lives but also the values by which humanity might live. By stripping away the comfort of external supports—be they divine guarantees, fixed human natures, or unquestioned societal norms—existentialism places the individual squarely at the center of their own existence, burdened and blessed with the task of self-creation. While specific formulations by thinkers like Sartre or Camus may be subject to critique or may seem tied to particular historical moments , the underlying questions they compel us to confront remain timeless. As long as human beings experience the dizziness of freedom, face the necessity of choice, yearn for meaning, and confront their own finitude, the existential attitude—characterized by engaged, responsible, and authentic confrontation with these realities—will continue to find new expressions and retain its power to disturb, provoke, and ultimately, to illuminate the path of human self-understanding.

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